We warmly welcome you to the exhibition “Time of the Samurai”. This exhibition tells the story of Japanese warriors, from the emergence of this social group to its decline. Alongside tales of honour, loyalty, and courage, we present stories full of intrigue, betrayal, and conspiracy. As well as the familiar themes of combat, weapons, and armour, we also explore the lesser-known side of the samurai as men of culture. We will touch on themes related to their daily lives, religion, entertainment, and art. We will explore the various paths (dō) that were an integral part of samurai life, including the way of the warrior (bushidō); the way of the bow (kyūdō); the way of tea (chadō); the way of writing (shodō); and the way of fragrance (kōdō). As the path opens to all who follow it, we invite you to explore the exhibition and follow the paths once chosen by Japanese warriors.

The first part of the exhibition presents images of samurai as immortalised in Japanese woodblock prints. These were created by Utagawa Kuniyoshi, one of the last great masters of ukiyo-e (“images of the floating world”) and the artist behind some of the most famous depictions of Japanese warriors.

Born Yoshisaburō in 1798 into a family of fabric dyers, this background undoubtedly influenced his later bold use of colour, rich patterns, and decorative style. He studied under Toyokuni, a leading figure of the Utagawa school, and was given the artistic name “Kuniyoshi” in recognition of his creative independence, formed by combining the second part of his master’s name with the first part of his own.

Initially, Kuniyoshi painted portraits of beautiful women and theatre actors. However, it was his 1827 series, “The One Hundred and Eight Heroes of Suikoden”, that brought him fame. Over time, he achieved undeniable mastery in depicting dynamic, expressive battle scenes, and his bold compositions, with their close attention to colour and detail, became a hallmark of his work.

This exhibition presents a selection of works from the musha-e genre, through which the artist helped to shape the widely recognised image of the samurai.

Warrior portraits, or musha-e, were one of the most important themes in Kuniyoshi’s work. During his lifetime, he created over eighteen hundred military-themed works. These images are characterised by a powerful expressiveness and embody the key virtues and values of the samurai ethos. However, Kuniyoshi’s life coincided with a period of peace and isolation in Japan, when samurai were more concerned with holding official positions than engaging in battle. Therefore, drawing on Japan’s distant past, the artist sought the heroes of his works in chronicles, legends, and popular literature. One of his sources of inspiration was the 14^th-century historical epic Taiheiki, which recounts a turbulent period in Japanese history — from the decline of the Kamakura shogunate to the establishment of a new political order. Under the pretext of illustrating the fate of ancient heroes, Kuniyoshi created a series of fifty woodblock prints depicting warriors fighting for dominance over the country in the 16^th century.

Each portrait in the “Heroic Tales of the Taiheiki” series depicts a warrior at the centre of the composition, often at a pivotal moment in their life, as narrated in the accompanying text. The figures are shown in dynamic poses and gestures that convey the drama of their situations. Here, we see Oda Nobunaga, one of the most important commanders in 16^th-century Japan, who began the process of unifying the country. However, he was betrayed by his vassal and committed ritual suicide to avoid capture. Nobunaga’s work was continued first by Toyotomi Hideyoshi and then by Tokugawa Ieyasu, who brought the era of civil wars to a definitive end. In 1603, Ieyasu established a shogunate in Edo (present-day Tokyo) and maintained peace in Japan for nearly 250 years.

The warrior depicted by Kuniyoshi is Inagawa Yoshimoto (1519–1560), shown seated in full armour at his command post. Despite being one of the most prominent generals of his time, he was defeated by Oda Nobunaga at the Battle of Okehazama in 1560, while marching to conquer Kyoto. The battle is notable for the stark imbalance in forces: Nobunaga’s army of around two thousand men triumphed over Yoshimoto’s force of more than twenty thousand. This decisive victory marked a turning point and paved the way for Nobunaga’s rise to power.

The samurai Matsunaga Hisahide (1510–1577) was known for his ruthlessness, political manoeuvring, and intrigue. He repeatedly betrayed his allies and shifted allegiances, ultimately rebelling against Oda Nobunaga. He took refuge in the seemingly impregnable Shigisan Castle, but Nobunaga’s forces eventually captured it. Realising the hopelessness of his situation, Hisahide committed seppuku. Before doing so, however, he destroyed the priceless “Hiragumo” kettle to prevent it from falling into enemy hands. By depicting this moment, Kuniyoshi highlights the tension between samurai aesthetics and the brutal realities of warfare.

Kuniyoshi created dynamic battle scenes depicting events from Japanese history, particularly from the Heian period and the Genpei War, which took place between 1180 and 1185 and is described in the epic Heike monogatari. His works depict both victors and the defeated, not only honourable samurai but also traitors. The artist paid close attention to details such as armour, costumes, and family crests, enabling the different sides of the conflict to be distinguished. His works also demonstrate an excellent knowledge of history, as evidenced by the precise depiction of weaponry that changed over the centuries.

The warship depicted by Kuniyoshi belonged to the Minamoto clan, one of the most powerful samurai families of the Heian period. This is indicated by the family crest — a gentian flower surrounded by bamboo leaves — visible on the sail. Among the figures on board is Minamoto Tametomo, a renowned archer who, according to legend, sank an enemy vessel of the rival Taira clan with a single arrow. He was said to have an unusually long left arm, which allowed him to draw the bow with exceptional force. After losing this arm, he is believed to have performed one of the earliest recorded acts of seppuku.

The story of the Soga brothers begins in 1151 when a relative murdered their father. According to custom, the children of a murdered man were often killed to prevent a vendetta. In this case, however, the sons were spared, and for years they harboured a desire for revenge. They finally acted in 1193, when their father’s killer accompanied the shogun on a hunting trip. Kuniyoshi depicts a fight between one of the brothers and the renowned warrior Nitta Shirō Tadatsune. The driving rain, rendered in vertical lines, heightens the drama and dynamism of the scene. Both brothers were killed, bringing the cycle of revenge to an end.

The heroine of this depiction is Tomoe Gozen, a legendary female warrior known as an onna-bugeisha. She lived at the turn of the 12^th and 13^th centuries and, according to chronicles, had a fair, delicate complexion and long, lustrous hair. Although Tomoe Gozen was the concubine of General Minamoto no Yoshinaka, it is her skills as a horsewoman and archer, as well as her daring combat strategies, for which she is renowned. Kuniyoshi also emphasises her exceptional strength, depicting her lifting a large boulder which she intends to hurl at her attacking enemies.

The Battles of Kawanakajima are a popular subject in Japanese woodblock prints. A series of five engagements took place there between 1553 and 1564, fought by rival regional warlords. Takeda Shingen of Kai Province and Uesugi Kenshin of Echigo Province contested control of the plain. Ultimately, neither side achieved a decisive victory, and the campaigns are generally regarded as inconclusive. The most famous engagement was the Fourth Battle of Kawanakajima when the two warlords clashed in direct combat. Uesugi Kenshin launched a surprise attack on Takeda Shingen’s camp, riding straight into his tent and drawing his sword. Taken off guard, Shingen defended himself with a war fan he had to hand.

In his woodblock prints, Kuniyoshi depicted samurai in real battles as well as in combat with demons, spirits, and the forces of nature. Drawing inspiration from historical events, legends, and theatrical tales, he often endowed his characters with superhuman abilities. The significant time span between the early days of the samurai class and the present day also made this possible.

According to one chronicle, the warrior Asahina Yoshihide — the son of Tomoe Gozen — dived into the sea during an expedition with the future shogun, returning with sea monsters known as wani. Kuniyoshi depicted these creatures as crocodiles, drawing inspiration from illustrations by a scholar who had gained knowledge of the Western world through contacts with the Dutch. Yoshihide is renowned for his legendary exploits and frequently appears in stories and kabuki performances.

Kuniyoshi depicted Minamoto no Yorimitsu, a military leader who dreams of warring demons during a serious illness. The spider Tsuchigumo, shown in the top-right corner, triggers his nightmare. Yorimitsu’s generals are playing the board game Go, while others observe the dream scenes. This print was a satire of the Tenpō reforms, which restricted various aspects of social life during Kuniyoshi’s lifetime. The ill Yorimitsu symbolises an incompetent shogun, while the generals represent his ministers.

The central panel of the triptych depicts Tsuchigumo, the spider from Yorimitsu’s nightmare. Although he is asleep, the general remains alert. When the spider attempts to cast its sticky web over him, he draws his sword, wounds the attacker, and wakes up. However, he notices blood on the floor, so he and his men follow the trail. They ultimately discover the demon’s lair in a cave, where the spider is dealt the fatal blow by Sakata Kintoki, one of Yorimitsu’s four generals. Kintoki, also known as Kintarō (meaning “golden boy”), is the subject of many manga and anime stories thanks to his superhuman strength and extraordinary abilities.

Kabuki theatre was one of the main sources of samurai stories during the Edo period. It is believed to have originated in 1603 with a unique performance by a Shinto priestess in a riverbed, combining dance, song, and recitation. This performance was called kabuku, which translates as “strange”. This form of performance soon became extremely popular. Initially, it was performed by women of ill repute, but their behaviour was deemed inappropriate, resulting in a total ban on female performers. From 1662 onwards, only men were permitted to perform, including in female roles known as onnagata. Popular actors were often portrayed, leading to the development of yakusha-e, or actor portraits, which are presented in the next section.

Popular themes explored in Kabuki plays include the internal conflicts of characters between duty and personal feelings, as well as loyalty and devotion to their lord. One such play is Godairiki Koi no Fūjime, which tells the story of love put to the test and its tragic consequences. The main characters are the samurai Satsuma Gengobei and his companion Sasano Sangobei. They both fall in love with the geisha Koman and, competing with one another, engage in cunning schemes that inevitably lead to her murder. Subsequent woodblock prints depict Satsuma seated with a kiseru pipe and Koman with a shamisen. As a token of her love, she inscribed the characters go-dai-riki, meaning “five powerful forces”, on the instrument. These words were used as a seal on love letters to promise undying love. However, as a result of the intrigue, the meaning of the characters was changed to “Sengobei’s Beloved”, arousing Gengobei’s suspicion and jealousy and resulting in the tragic ending of the drama.

The story of the forty-seven rōnin seeking to avenge their lord’s death is one of the most famous tales of honour and revenge in Japanese culture.

In 1701, Asano, a feudal lord serving at the shogun’s court, was provoked and drew his sword, wounding the master of ceremonies, Kira Yoshinaka. For this offence, he was sentenced to commit seppuku, or ritual suicide. His property was confiscated, and his warriors became rōnin, or masterless samurai. For two years, they plotted in secret to take revenge. On the night of 31 January 1703, they attacked Kira’s residence and fulfilled their quest for revenge. They placed the head of the murdered man on their lord’s grave, and then surrendered to the authorities. Although they were punished, they were also granted the right to commit ritual suicide, which they carried out with dignity. The story quickly found its way into theatrical performances, the most famous of which was Kanadehon Chūshingura. The tale had a wide influence on woodblock printmakers. Kuniyoshi addressed the theme in various compositional variations more than a dozen times.

Although the woodblock prints in this series depict successive events in the story of the loyal vassals’ revenge, they do not form a coherent cycle. Here, the rōnin gather at a bridge to attack Yoshinaka’s residence under the cover of night. They wear black cloaks adorned with white triangles to help them recognise one another in the darkness. Due to contemporary censorship, Kuniyoshi assigned the characters names from the drama Kanadehon Chūshingura, meaning that Kira Yoshinaka is referred to as Moronao.

After exacting their revenge, the rōnin travelled to Sengakuji Temple in Takanawa, where their lord was buried, to present Moronao’s head as an offering. En route, they encountered a Buddhist priest, with whom they engaged in conversation. Suggesting the early morning, Kuniyoshi depicts the sun rising above the horizon, its warm rays radiating outwards

In 1847, Kuniyoshi began work on a series of fifty-one biographies of people involved in the original events of the rōnin story. The full-length portraits depict the warriors in scenes characteristic of the night attack. Instead of using their real names, Kuniyoshi opted for the names from the drama Kanadehon Chūshingura.

Enya Hangan Takasada is the theatrical counterpart of Asano Naganori. He is depicted in formal court attire, a key element of which is the long, voluminous nagabakama trousers. The requirement to wear these trousers at the shogun’s court stemmed from a desire to prevent samurai from drawing their swords. However, this did not stop Enya from drawing his sword and striking a blow at the insulting Moronao, seen in the next portrait.

Kuniyoshi depicted Yazama Jūrirō Motooki with a whistle in his mouth, referencing the events of the fateful night attack. The rōnin had agreed that whoever found Moronao first would signal this to the other vassals by blowing a whistle. Motooki did so, then beheaded the official himself, thus avenging his lord’s death.

During the Edo period, the Tōkaidō route was the main connection between the shogun’s seat in Edo (modern-day Tokyo) and the emperor’s residence in Kyoto. Running along the Pacific coast of Honshu, the route was approximately 515 kilometres long. It featured fifty-three stations offering accommodation to travellers. Samurai travelled this route as part of their sankin-kōtai duty, which required daimyō to spend as much time in Edo as on their estates. Kuniyoshi created the series “Famous Views of the Fifty-Three Stations on the Tōkaidō”, depicting the most important locations along the route.

Kuniyoshi depicted travellers heading towards Mount Fuji along the Tōkaidō Road. By using both close-up and distant perspectives, he conveyed the continuity of the road as well as the vastness of the surrounding landscape. A solitary pine tree on the right adds majesty to the composition, symbolically corresponding to the mountain opposite. Subsequent panels illustrate the diverse natural landscapes of Japan, including mountain slopes, dense forests, and dramatic coastlines with picturesque bays.

Once you have viewed all the works, we now invite you to move on to the second part of the exhibition in the next room.

The display cases before you feature objects that represent the most recognisable and symbolic aspects of samurai culture. The daishō, comprising a pair of swords, symbolises membership of the warrior class and evokes an ethos of combat, honour, and a readiness to sacrifice one’s life for principle. Only samurai were entitled to wear a daishō, which was a sign of their high standing in society.

To the left of the daishō is a suit of armour, a tangible reminder of an era of constant conflict and the military origins of this social class. Its design also reveals the expertise of Japanese craftsmen, who were able to combine functionality with refined aesthetics.

The military elements are contrasted by the kamishimo, the traditional samurai attire, on the right. This takes us back to the Edo period, a time of stability and peace, when warriors increasingly served as officials and guardians of social order.

Together, these objects tell the story of the transformation of samurai identity — from ruthless warriors to officials for whom the sword became a symbol of social status rather than a weapon of war. We will return to this theme later in the exhibition, revealing another, lesser-known aspect of samurai culture: their appreciation of art and literature. For now, however, we invite you to explore the history of the samurai, followed by these magnificent examples of Japanese weaponry.

The origins of the Japanese warrior class, who would come to be known as samurai in subsequent centuries, date back to the ninth century. At this time, the imperial court in Kyoto was consolidating its position and needed loyal allies to suppress rebellions by local nobles and defend distant provinces. Japan is a vast country, situated on an archipelago of islands stretching 3,300 kilometres. Political infighting and inter-family warfare led to a growing demand for armed men, who were known as bushi. The term “samurai”, meaning “to serve the lord”, appeared in the tenth century, though it derived from the archaic word samurau. The samurai’s code of conduct remained unwritten for centuries, and it was not until the 17th century, during the rule of the Tokugawa shoguns, that it began to be defined by the term bushidō, meaning “way of the warrior”. A samurai was expected to be loyal to their lord, courageous, and ready to die. This image, perpetuated in popular culture, most often refers to periods of conflict over power between individual families.

In 1192, Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointed shogun by the emperor, becoming the highest-ranking warrior responsible for maintaining peace in the country. This moment is considered to mark the beginning of military rule in Japan, known as bakufu, or “tent rule”. Although the emperor retained formal authority, the samurai held actual power for nearly seven hundred years through the shogunate system.

Since the unification of Japan in the early 17th century, there had been few opportunities for warriors to fight. Instead, they performed administrative functions, managed land, maintained social order, and fought fires. The following timeline provides an overview of the most significant events in samurai history, from the formation of this warrior group to its dissolution following Japan’s opening to the world in the second half of the 19th century.

Japanese armour evolved over the centuries to adapt to various fighting styles. It provided effective protection and was distinguished by its high level of craftsmanship and precision. The display case in front of you contains individual pieces of samurai armour. They do not form a single set, but come from different ones. Full suits of armour can be seen in display cases located in the central part of the exhibition. Here, the pieces are arranged to resemble the human body, making it easier to identify the body parts they protected. The diagram of the armour on the left-hand side of the display case can also help with orientation. The drawers contain further examples of the finest Japanese craftsmanship.

The development of Japanese armour began with the keikō, which consisted of numerous small, interconnected iron plates called lamellae. From the Heian period onwards, more advanced armour began to emerge, such as the ō-yoroi. This type of armour featured a dō cuirass made up of numerous iron or leather lamellae coated with multiple layers of lacquer. These were connected by leather cords to create overlapping rows, which were then tied together with silk cords called odoshi, forming larger plates. The breastplate was often covered with printed leather to prevent the bowstring from snagging on the plates. The dō was extended with additional rows of lamellae to protect the hips (kusazuri).

As a warrior armed with a bow and arrows could not protect themself with a portable shield, the armour was equipped with large protective plates (ō-sode), which were attached to the shoulders and were similar in design to a cuirass. These plates acted as a shield and were intended to protect against attacks from the side. The armour was complemented by additional pieces: arm protectors made of cloth and iron plates, greaves, and a throat protector.

From the mid-Heian period onwards, another type of armour emerged: the dō-maru. Like the kozane, it was made of lamellar panels, but it was smaller in size. Its design and light weight made it popular among infantrymen, as it allowed considerable freedom of movement.

Further adjustments to armour were prompted by the intense fighting between samurai clans during the Sengoku period, when armies of thousands of warriors faced each other in battle. Armour was intended to be practical, quick, and easy to produce, so various modifications were introduced. Instead of individual lamellae, entire plates (itazane) were used, and the lacing was simplified; sometimes, the plates were joined with rivets. Hinges were also added to the left side of the cuirass to make it easier to put on. Together with the cuirass, the arm protectors, hip guards, greaves, and shoulder guards formed a type of armour known as tōsei gusoku.

During the Azuchi–Momoyama period, the use of firearms became widespread. This resulted in the creation of a new type of cuirass called the nimai-dō, which featured a double-plate design. This consisted of a breastplate and a backplate, each made of a single plate.

During the Edo period (1603–1868), Japan experienced a time of peace and isolation. As a result, armour lost its original purpose, and its protective function faded into the background. It was primarily used for ceremonial purposes. The daimyō (great feudal lords) and their entourage wore sumptuous armour on annual journeys ordered by the shogunate. This was designed according to the preferences of those who commissioned it, resulting in a wide variety of cuirass shapes and types inspired by earlier models. To ensure a lightweight design, many components were made of leather. Original components from older pieces were sometimes used as well.

Following Japan’s opening to international contact in 1854, and during the Meiji period (1868–1912), many pieces of armour left the Japanese mainland and became part of private and museum collections around the world.

The Japanese kabuto helmet was originally designed for practical head protection, but over time it evolved into more decorative forms, often used during periods of peace. It typically consisted of a bowl (hachi), a neck guard (shikoro), a visor (mabisashi), side flaps (fukigaeshi), and a decorative crest (tatemono).

The earliest helmets featured a round or conical bowl. Over time, two main types developed: the hoshi-kabuto, characterised by prominent rivets, and the suji-kabuto, distinguished by ribs running from the base to the apex. The zunari-kabuto had a simpler construction, usually made from three to five plates shaped to fit the head. The toppai-kabuto was noted for its conical form, while the momonari-kabuto had a distinctive peach-like shape. In contrast, kawari-kabuto could take on highly imaginative forms, limited only by the creativity of their makers and owners.

War hats (jingasa), worn by samurai during travel and by infantry soldiers in the field, were also widely use

A maedate is a decorative element mounted on a fitting at the front of a helmet. Typically made from lightweight materials such as wood, leather, papier-mâché, whalebone, or metal, it was designed to avoid adding significant weight to the helmet. Maedate could take the form of horns (kuwagata) or depict stylised plants, animals, insects, mythical creatures, or religious motifs. In some cases, they were shaped like a family crest. They served both identificatory and representational purposes. These ornaments were often large and vividly coloured to attract attention or inspire fear.

War masks (mengu), used for facial protection, first appeared in the 12th century in the form of a headpiece (happuri) that protected the forehead and cheeks. In the following centuries, several types developed, including the full mask (sōmen), the half mask (menpō), which covered the face below the eyes and often featured a detachable nose piece, and the lower-face mask (hanbō), which protected only the cheeks and chin.

In addition to their protective function, masks were designed to instil fear in the enemy. They were typically made of iron and lacquered on the inside to prevent direct contact with the metal. Following contact with Europeans, some masks began to feature stylised moustaches and beards. Full masks were not worn in battle, as they restricted visibility. Instead, the mask was secured at the back of the head with straps and held firmly against the face by a helmet cord (shinobi no o). A throat guard (tare) was frequently attached to the mask.

The weapons on display in the exhibition demonstrate the variety of tools used by Japanese warriors over the centuries. Each type was designed for specific combat situations and had a distinct purpose on the battlefield.

For centuries, the primary weapon of Japanese warriors was the bow (yumi), even after firearms became widespread. The term “way of the horse and bow” (kyūba no michi) originally referred to the duties of samurai.

The bow, measuring between 2 and 2.5 metres in length, was asymmetrically constructed, with the grip positioned one-third of the way up. This design allowed it to be used both on horseback and from a kneeling position. The bow was made from slats of wood and bamboo glued together, coated with lacquer and bound with rattan to increase its strength. The bowstring was made from plant fibres such as hemp. Arrows were fashioned from thin bamboo shafts with steel points, and the fletching was usually made from osprey feathers.

Arrows were carried either in an open quiver worn on the right hip, called an ebira, or in a closed cylindrical quiver worn on the back, called an utsubo.

Japanese warriors also used a variety of polearms. Yari spears, in various lengths and with different types of heads, were common—single- or double-edged, simple or complex in shape. They were employed both in frontal attacks and defensive formations, allowing samurai to maintain distance from their opponents.

The long naginata, with its curved, single-edged blade, was used for both cutting and thrusting. Originally wielded by samurai, as well as infantrymen (ashigaru), it was also used by warrior monks (sōhei). Over time, a specific fighting style, known as naginata-dō, developed. The weapon also became associated with noblewomen warriors, called onna-bugeisha. One of the most famous was Tomoe Gozen, renowned for her skill in battle and her courage. Her mastery of weapons and bravery has been celebrated in numerous literary works and painted depictions. In times of danger, while their husbands were away at war, samurai wives also had to defend their family, property and honour.

Firearms appeared in Japan relatively late. In 1543, a storm caused a Chinese ship carrying Portuguese sailors to land on the island of Tanegashima. It was these sailors who introduced the matchlock guns they carried to Japan.

Local feudal lords (daimyō) were intrigued by the new weapon and commissioned their own copies. However, firearms did not come into widespread use until the Battle of Nagashino in 1575, when soldiers under the command of Oda Nobunaga (1534–1582) employed them effectively.

The matchlock guns used in Japan were based entirely on Portuguese designs, although they were decorated in accordance with Japanese culture and tradition. Firearms evolved little in Japan over the centuries, remaining largely unchanged until the late Edo period.

Swords held a special place in Japanese warrior culture. The process of making them was complex and required considerable experience; it involved repeatedly folding and tempering the steel to give the blade the right balance of hardness and flexibility. Tamahagane steel, smelted from iron sand extracted from riverbeds, was used for this purpose. The steel was then forged into layers, which removed impurities and created a pattern of thousands of layers visible on the sword as the hada. The tempering process produced a hard cutting edge and a flexible spine, as well as a hamon line that varied depending on the smith’s preference. Finally, the blade was sharpened and polished, and could be marked by the maker if desired.

The katana is the most well-known type of Japanese sword. This weapon has a slightly curved, single-edged blade that is over sixty centimetres long. It is designed for rapid drawing and cutting. Its form is the result of centuries of development, during which the shape of the blade and the properties of the steel were perfected. The katana evolved from the tachi, a long, single-edged sword often exceeding 80 centimetres in length and suspended from a belt with the blade facing downwards. Thanks to its larger size and pronounced curvature, the tachi was ideally suited to horseback combat, whereas the shorter katana was designed for close combat, particularly on foot. There were also ōdachi (great swords), measuring over ninety centimetres. Due to their size, these swords were typically carried on the back. As well as their combat function, they were also presented as offerings to temples. However, it was the katana that became a symbol of the Japanese warrior, often being referred to as the “samurai soul”.

A wakizashi is a short, single-edged sword ranging from thirty-three to sixty-six centimetres (one to two shaku) in length. It was used by samurai and non-sword-bearers alike, the latter of whom were forbidden to carry long swords, only short ones. Together with a katana, it formed the distinctive daishō two-sword set. Unlike a long blade, a wakizashi could be carried indoors, making it useful in tight spaces and in situations requiring a quick reaction. Thanks to its size, it was a handy and versatile weapon. It could be used in combat and as a backup weapon. The wakizashi also had ritual significance. A samurai could use it to commit seppuku, an act of suicide that symbolised honour and loyalty.

The display also presents individual components of the sword’s mountings. Although these are easy to miss when viewing the blade in its setting, the surfaces feature a remarkable wealth of decorative techniques and motifs. Miniature scenes, subtle details and precise craftsmanship mean that each of these elements is a miniature work of art in its own right. We therefore present them separately so that you can appreciate the extraordinary skill of the Japanese craftsmen who made them.

A tantō is a short, usually single-edged sword, no longer than about one shaku (about thirty centimetres). In the hands of a samurai, it was primarily used as a secondary weapon in close combat, particularly in situations of surprise or where the use of a longer sword would have been difficult.

Like the wakizashi, the tantō could be used for seppuku, or ritual suicide, which was associated with the samurai’s code of honour. Due to its small size, this weapon was also carried by women and non-warriors for personal protection. Its compact form meant that it could easily be concealed within the folds of clothing, making it practical for everyday use.

The tantō came in various mounting styles, both with and without a tsuba (guard). In the latter version, called aikuchi, the hilt and scabbard fit tightly together, creating a compact, elegant whole.

By the end of the 19^th century, the role of sword makers had begun to fade due to the introduction of a ban on swords. However, many masters adapted their skills to create everyday and decorative objects, thus preserving ancient craftsmanship techniques. The vases presented here are a fine example of this.

A tsuba is a type of metal guard positioned between the hilt and the blade of a sword. It prevented the hand from slipping onto the blade, protected the wearer from an opponent’s blows, and also helped to balance the sword.

The material, shape, and decoration of sword guards varied. They were crafted by specialised workshops, often associated with distinct artistic schools. The sword was worn tucked through the belt, edge upwards, with the hilt slightly forward, which made the tsuba clearly visible. Over time, increasingly complex techniques and decorative motifs were employed in their production, reflecting the status of the owner. These included openwork, relief decoration, and metal inlays. Due to their decorative nature, tsuba came to convey philosophical and religious ideas. Japanese craftsmen fashioned them into extraordinary forms — small works of art that were frequently given as unique gifts.

In addition to the central hole for the blade’s tang, the tsuba featured smaller apertures for attaching additional accessories, such as a small knife or a hairpin. Whether these were present depended on how the sword was mounted and the user’s individual needs.

We now enter the world of samurai spirituality to discover their lesser-known side as men of culture, art, and science. The ideal warrior combined “pen and sword”, possessing both martial competence and the sensitivity of an educated person. This transition takes place through the tearoom. The ritual of preparing, serving, and drinking powdered green tea, known as chanoyu, occupied an important place in samurai culture. Originally brought from China by Buddhist monks, tea was initially valued as a means of aiding concentration during meditation practices. Over time, it became a crucial element in the lives of the military elite, symbolising status and sophistication. During the Middle Ages and the era of civil wars, tea gatherings served social, political, and ceremonial functions, strengthening alliances, conducting negotiations, and planning military campaigns.

In the 16^th century, the wabi-cha aesthetic emerged under the influence of tea masters, especially Sen no Rikyū. Based on simplicity, moderation, and a connection with nature, it is also reflected in irregularly shaped vessels bearing traces of hand-forming. For the samurai, who valued asceticism and readiness to sacrifice, tea gatherings offered a form of spiritual discipline, helping them to maintain mindfulness and composure in battle.

Tea gatherings (chanoyu) took place in specially designed rooms or pavilions known as chashitsu. These were small, unpretentious spaces made of natural materials, typically measuring four and a half tatami mats. Inside, there was either a sunken hearth (ro) or a portable brazier (furo) used for boiling water. In a back room, known as the mizuya, the host prepared the tea utensils. One wall of the pavilion featured an alcove (tokonoma) for displaying a hanging scroll or a flower arrangement. These items provided topics of conversation during the tea gathering.

You are welcome to enter our tearoom. In keeping with tradition, however, we kindly ask that you remove your shoes before entering.

Karesansui, or dry landscape gardens, are a specific type of Japanese garden associated with Zen Buddhism. These compositions, almost entirely devoid of vegetation, reflect the essence of Japanese nature.

Stones (ishi) represent mountains and islands. Their shape and arrangement are carefully considered, reflecting harmony and balance in the world. They symbolise permanence — that which remains unchanged by the passage of time.

Carefully raked gravel and sand form wavy lines that mimic the shapes of waves or water currents. Representing rivers, seas, or waterfalls, they introduce a sense of dynamism into an otherwise static landscape, pointing to the transience of all things.

These gardens are intended to convey humanity’s humility and awe in the face of nature’s majesty. The sense of emptiness, which is central to Japanese aesthetics, is designed to encourage reflection and contemplation. They are not intended for strolling through, but are usually admired from a veranda or from the entrance to a temple.

For the samurai, the karesansui garden was a place of peace and concentration. Far from the hustle and bustle, it offered a space in which mental balance could be nurtured — essential both in martial arts and in everyday life.

We invite you to take a moment to pause and immerse yourself in the garden, discovering its rhythm and harmony.

The lives of samurai were shaped by a system combining three belief systems: Shinto, Buddhism, and Confucianism. These were intertwined to create a coherent foundation for the samurai’s worldview.

Shinto, Japan’s indigenous religion, fosters a sense of connection with nature and one’s ancestors. At its core is the belief in the presence of kami — spirits that inhabit mountains, rivers, trees, and even everyday objects. This worldview engenders respect for nature, tradition, and one’s own lineage.

Buddhism encouraged reflection on the transience and fragility of life. Zen, which emphasised meditation and direct experience, became particularly important. It taught composure, concentration, and acceptance of death — attitudes that were crucial for warriors. Samurai prayed for success in battle and, after victories, presented offerings of thanks and built temples. After retiring from service, it was also common for them to choose a monastic life.

In turn, Confucianism shaped the social order. It emphasised loyalty, duty, and hierarchy. Samurai were obliged to remain loyal to their lord and to adhere to specific moral principles, such as justice, honesty, and responsibility. These principles formed the foundation of the samurai ethos of bushidō.

Beyond the symbolic torii gate, which demarcates the boundary between the secular and the sacred in Japan, you will find artefacts associated with samurai beliefs. Our tour begins with a woodblock print depicting Amaterasu, the most important Shinto sun goddess from whom all Japanese emperors are said to descend, and concludes with a statue of Bishamonten, the Buddhist patron of the samurai.

Samurai, particularly during the Edo period, were guided by the principle of achieving a balance between combat skills, learning, and the arts. As well as being skilled in the use of weapons, they also excelled in calligraphy, poetry, and philosophy. Many of them wrote poems, particularly haiku, as well as philosophical treatises and texts devoted to martial arts.

Shodō, meaning the “way of writing”, is the Japanese art of calligraphy using a brush and ink. It developed through the activities of Zen monks who travelled to Chinese monasteries to study the teachings of the Buddha. They copied Buddhist texts and returned with works of art, literature, and calligraphy.

Traditionally, Japanese calligraphy uses several basic tools known as the “Four Treasures of the Study”: a brush (fude), ink (sumi), an inkstone (suzuri), and paper (washi). The essence of shodō lies in achieving harmony between body movement, breathing, and the mind. As it required extensive training and concentration, this art form served as a means of self-improvement for samurai, on a par with swordsmanship. In the display case, you can see two suzuribako, traditional Japanese calligraphy boxes. Made of wood and covered with lacquer, these boxes were used to store ink, inkstones, water containers, and brushes, among other items. They formed an important part of the writing culture of the elite, including the samurai.

Nō theatre is a refined blend of drama, music, dance, and poetry. It emerged in the 14th century, drawing on earlier performance traditions. It soon gained the patronage of the samurai class, whose members were not only devoted supporters of nō theatre but also occasionally performed on stage themselves. The plays explore themes of death and the transmigration of souls, connected with Zen philosophy and the ideals of bushidō.

The lead actor (shite) performed in a distinctive costume and mask (omote). His precise, restrained movements carried symbolic meaning and required familiarity with theatrical conventions to be fully understood. He was accompanied by a supporting actor (waki), a chorus (jiutai), and musicians (hayashi) playing flutes and drums.

The masks were carved from cypress wood with great precision. They were then primed with gofun, a paste made from finely ground oyster shells and glue, which gave them their characteristic smooth, milky-white surface. The masks were subsequently painted with mineral pigments and sealed with lacquer. Subtle tilting of the head, combined with the interplay of light and shadow, allowed the mask to convey shifting emotions and inner states. Different types of masks represented various characters, including women, elders, demons, and ghosts. They were treated with great respect and were never worn offstage. We present here a Kōbeshimi mask representing a sinister demon and a mask for the role of a young woman.

In this display case and the next, you can see objects decorated with lacquer, or urushi, one of the raw materials most frequently used by Japanese craftsmen. It was used to adorn both weapons and everyday objects. Not only did it protect surfaces from undesirable substances, it also provided high aesthetic value thanks to the shine and smoothness of lacquered surfaces. Lacquer is obtained from the sap of the sumac tree, which is then filtered and dyed to the desired colour. It was applied in thin layers, each of which was sanded and polished before the next was added. The lacquer hardened when exposed to the appropriate temperature and humidity.

One traditional Japanese decorative technique was maki-e. This involved sprinkling powdered gold, silver, or other metal alloys through a bamboo tube onto a wet pattern painted with clear lacquer. The images thus created could lie flush with the background or appear as subtle raised reliefs. The pattern was then protected with a layer of transparent lacquer, and the hardened surface was polished. The decoration could be enhanced with inlays of thin sheets of metal, mother-of-pearl flakes, ceramics, and even eggshells. Japanese masters knew over a hundred different decorative processes and mastered each one to perfection, applying them with extraordinary skill. This is exemplified by the trays and tables on display.

In the final section of the exhibition, we explore the everyday costumes and accessories worn by samurai, particularly during times of peace. Clothing was not just a practical necessity; it was also an important symbol of social identity and a way of expressing one’s social class.

A kamishimo was the traditional formal attire worn by samurai, primarily during the Edo period. Consisting of wide, pleated trousers (hakama) and a sleeveless vest (kataginu) with stiff, wide-cut shoulders, it was worn over a dark kimono. This attire emphasised social status, dignity, and membership of the warrior class.

An essential part of the kimono was the obi, which held the garment together and allowed the wearer to carry various objects. One such item was the inrō, of which there are numerous intricately decorated examples on the left. This small box consisted of several interconnected compartments. It was used to store small everyday items, medicines, ink, or seals. The inrō was hung on a cord and secured with a decorative netsuke toggle, which often took the form of a small sculpture depicting animals, figures, or scenes from daily life. An ojime bead, attached to the cord connecting the compartments, prevented them from opening unintentionally.

The final display case features kimono, obi belts, and women’s accessories, including kushi combs, hairpins, and mirrors. Kimono were most often made of silk and decorated using various weaving, dyeing, and embroidery techniques. The choice of texture, colour, and pattern depended on the occasion, the season, and the wearer’s social status. The motifs adorning the fabrics frequently alluded to the natural world and symbols of good fortune, longevity, and moral virtues. One of the kimono on display here is decorated with alternating motifs of cranes, chrysanthemums, fans, and a court carriage — symbols of prosperity, longevity, dignity, and elegance.

Kimono reflected the ideals of harmony, order, and beauty that shaped Japanese culture for centuries. Their form and manner of wearing were linked to cultural practices maintained by the samurai, for whom clothing represented a continuous tradition, even as their position in society changed during the Edo period. Although the samurai era has passed, their legacy lives on — not only in museums but also in popular culture. Thank you for joining us on this journey through the world of the samurai. We now invite you to the final zone of the exhibition, where we explore how themes related to samurai culture have permeated films, manga, and anime to become a global phenomenon.